素牲──中國血食文化與佛道齋祭的兼容

Vegetarian Sacrifice: The Compatibility between the Culture of Chinese Blood Offerings and Buddhist and Daoist Vegetarian Rituals

祭祀用牲，即「血食」，是中國自古以來的祭祀傳統。許慎《說文解字》釋「祭」為「從示，以手持肉」，形容血祭的場景；段玉裁注曰「古者茹毛飲血，用血報神」，說明祭祀用血的意義。在三代，宗廟能否得饗血食，已具有國祚延續的象徵意義。重視「血食」（或「血祭」）是中國傳統祭禮的特色。漢末道教創立，建立「師不受錢，神不飲食」的清約，強調修齋，反對以血食祠祀鬼神，以正三天清氣，以別於六天故氣。佛教約於是時也在中國流傳，戒殺，重在行為上的不殺生，尚未有素食之律；至梁武帝篤信佛教，詔令僧人如素，並祈告天地宗廟「以麵為牲牷」，託素偽葷製成「素牲」以祀。梁武帝此舉無疑是對中國自古以來血食祠饗文化的正面挑戰，雖有支持者，但其均未敢擅改祭品令祖先茹素，至清代，中國宗廟祭祀仍以「牲祭」為主體。然而「素牲」所帶出的議題，除了是否合乎禮制之外，尚存在著素食如何作「牲」並具有「血」的神聖力，而達至與祖先神靈交通，這個根本性問題。本文以「素牲」為題，探討其產生背景、發展與意義，藉以探詢中國傳統血食祠饗文化與佛道教信仰的調和，以及牲祭涉及的死後關懷。將以六朝至宋的史料典籍為範圍，基於中國血食文化的考察，首先探問梁武帝創制「素牲」的緣起及其所引發的正反面態度；其次，觀察佛道教對於血食的態度與應對之道，探討「素牲」如何可能的問題。

The use of animal sacrifices, known as“blood offerings,”has been a traditional ritual in China since ancient times. The Shuowen Jiezi, written by Xu Shen, defines“offering”as“holding meat in the hands,”referring to a stage in the conduct of blood sacrifice. Duan Yucai explains that in ancient times, people would consume meat and drink blood as offerings to the gods, illustrating the significance of using blood in sacrifices. By the Three Dynasties period, whether ancestral temples could receive offerings of blood carried symbolic meaning for the continuity of the dynasty. The emphasis on“blood offerings”(or“sacrifice”) is a distinctive feature of traditional Chinese rituals. With the establishment of Daoism during the late Han Dynasty, a strict covenant was formed, stating that“teachers do not accept money, and gods do not consume food.”Through regulations and ceremonies, it emphasized purity and opposed offering blood sacrifices to spirits and gods, in order to differentiate the three days of purity from the six days of impurity. Buddhism, which spread to China during the same time, also emphasized refraining from killing and avoiding harm in one's actions but did not yet have strict vegetarian rules. It was not until Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty embraced Buddhism that monks were ordered to adopt vegetarianism and offer“vegetarian sacrifices”made from non-meat ingredients such as flour in offerings to heaven, earth, and ancestral temples. This act by the Emperor Wu undoubtedly posed a direct challenge to the blood offering culture deeply rooted in ancient China. Although there were supporters, no one dared to modify the offerings and have ancestors consume vegetarian sacrifices. Even during the Qing Dynasty, animal sacrifices remained the main focus of ancestral temple rituals. However, the issue raised by“vegetarian sacrifices”goes beyond the question of whether it complies with ritual norms. The present article explores how vegetarian food can be used to represent“animal sacrifices”and possess the sacred power of“blood,”allowing communication with ancestral spirits, thus posing a fundamental question. This paper examines the background, development, and significance of“vegetarian sacrifices,”aiming to examine the reconciliation between China's traditional blood food sacrificial culture and Buddhist and Taoist beliefs, as well as the posthumous care involved in animal sacrifices. Drawing on historical sources from the Six Dynasties to the Song Dynasty, based on an examination of China's blood offering culture, it first investigates the origins of Emperor Wu’s creation of“vegetarian sacrifices”and the positive and negative responses it triggered. Secondly, it examines the attitudes and responses of Buddhism and Taoism towards blood offerings, exploring the potential issues surrounding“vegetarian sacrifices.”