從張家山336號墓漢簡〈功令〉看漢初的功次遷轉制度

The Merit-Based Promotion System in the Early Western Han: Evidence from the“Gong Ling”Bamboo Slips from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 336

功次制度為排序同等級官吏的功勞多寡，選人遷補高一階官職的升遷制度，漢代多數官吏由此晉升。張家山336號漢墓出土〈功令〉是現存唯一一套規範功次制度的法令，本文分析〈功令〉條文，從呈報功勞、逐級遷轉的路徑、各級官職的任命機構三個方面切入，探討功次遷轉的規則，並呈現漢初制度的特色。在功勞呈報方面，從〈功令〉可知，決定官吏遷轉的因素並非只有功勞排序，自占功勞文書所寫的爵位、年齡、能某物等資訊皆有所影響，由此可知僅排序官吏功勞的「功次文書」並非實際選人之用。在官吏的遷轉路徑方面，漢初區分為有秩官吏與史類吏員兩條路徑，應是承秦而來。史類吏員無秩，並非循秩級晉升，而是由低階官府的屬吏升任高階官府的屬吏。但由史職構成的路徑已呈現多處匯流入有秩路徑的趨勢，至西漢後期便整合為一。在任命機構方面，漢初的一大特點為二千石官府屬吏並非自行任用，而是由丞相、御史大夫依功次選用。此規則使丞相、御史大夫的業務負擔沉重，縣的令史在升遷為二千石官府屬吏時，也得離開本郡，奔波至遠處任職。漢初王國並立的體制減輕了制度的弊端，王國皆有中央朝廷，各自選用國人擔任官吏，不僅分工減輕漢廷之負擔，也使基層官吏不必奔波至遠方任職。

The gongci (功次) system, which constituted the principal mechanism of official advancement during the Han dynasty, ranked officials of the same grade according to merit and promoted them accordingly. The“Gong Ling”bamboo slips excavated from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 336 are the only extant legal statutes regulating this system. This article analyzes the“Gong Ling”text from three perspectives: the reporting of merit, the pathways of promotion, and the institutions responsible for appointment.
With regard to merit reporting, the“Gong Ling”shows that promotion depended not only on merit ranking but also on factors such as rank title (jue爵), age, and demonstrated ability. Documents that merely listed merit rankings were therefore not sufficient for actual selection. As for promotion pathways, early Western Han administration distinguished between ranked officials (zhi秩) and clerical personnel (shi史), a division likely inherited from the Qin. Clerks, who lacked formal rank, advanced by transfer between offices rather than through graded promotion; this path, however, gradually converged with the ranked system and was fully integrated by the late Western Han.
In terms of appointing institutions, a distinctive feature of the early Western Han was that subordinates in high-ranking offices (those with stipends of 2,000 bushels) were appointed not locally but by the Chancellor and the Imperial Censor on the basis of merit ranking. While this centralized system increased administrative burdens and required officials to relocate over long distances, the coexistence of regional kingdoms mitigated these pressures by maintaining parallel courts and selecting officials locally.