華人敵視女性內涵與量表

本研究檢視臺灣民眾如何解讀敵視女性此一由西方學者提出的概念，並建立本土化量表。包括四項研究：研究一以開放式問卷調查民眾對敵視女性的看法，發展概念架構，建立量表初稿；研究二以封閉式問卷蒐集量化資料，經選題程序建立正式量表，經檢視具有內部一致性與組合信度，以及構念與效標關聯效度；研究三以男性樣本再探量表的信度與效度，顯示可預測男性的強制性交行為，並與華人重男輕女觀念具正相關而顯示在地性；研究四再以另一男性樣本檢視量表的增量效度及其與負面情緒的關聯，顯示量表與既有量表達中高度相關，但對強制性交的解釋仍具增量效度，同時顯示與負面情緒有正相關。本研究另建立短式量表，同樣具備良好的信度與效度，且具有效率與經濟性，實務專業者與研究人員可多加應用。文末就華人敵視女性的形成、量表的內涵與特徵、實務應用、研究限制與未來研究方向進行討論。

Hostility toward women, which was formally conceptualized in 1984 by Check (1984), is a crucial predictor of the occurrence of sexual assault. However, Check’s conceptualization is based on personal experience and thus rests on an individualist ontology with no account for culture or social structure (a la feminist discourse theory). Moreover, Chinese and Western societies have been conventionally considered collectivist and individualist, respectively. However, contemporary Chinese societies are becoming Westernized. Therefore, we conceptualized hostility toward women in a manner suited to the Taiwanese context and formulated a scale for measuring hostility toward women.
Four studies were conducted. In Study 1, we administered an open-ended questionnaire to Taiwanese respondents regarding how“hostility toward women”is perceived in Taiwanese society and how they think and behave when they feel hostility toward women. These two questions explored the significance of hostility toward women at the social and personal levels, respectively, in response to the bicultural orientation that characterizes contemporary Chinese societies and to explore the possible differences between the Taiwanese concept and the corresponding Western concept. Based on the questionnaire results, we then conceptualized hostility toward women as“a set of behaviors and mental states that involve toxic masculinity, gender role stereotypes, complaints about women’s rights, inferiority and resentment, and dissatisfaction and aggression with assertiveness among women.”A first draft of the questions comprising the measurement scale was then written.
In Study 2, we refined the scale using item and factor analyses on responses to closed-ended questionnaires. The final scale had five dimensions: toxic masculinity, gender role stereotypes, complaints about women’s rights, low self-esteem and resentment, and dissatisfaction and aggression with assertiveness among women. The final questionnaire had 29 questions in total, and we placed eight counterbalancing questions in the scale to minimize any resistance to answering the majority of the questions whose phrasing had negative connotations toward women. The scale was found to have good internal consistency, composite reliability, construct validity, criterion-related validity, and measurement invariance between male and female respondents. In addition, a 15-item short-form scale (with five counterbalanced questions) constructed for efficiency of use was found to be valid and reliable.
In Study 3, we verified the reliability and validity of the scale with another sample of male respondents. We found that the scale has predictive validity when used to predict forced sexual intercourse in men.
In Study 4, we examined the incremental validity of the scale with a different sample by reviewing the correlation between the scale of hostility toward women developed in the previous study and the present scale, as well as the correlation with negative emotions (affecting physical and mental health). The results indicated that the new scale was moderately to highly correlated with the existing scales, but the interpretation of forced sexual intercourse still had incremental validity.
Overall, the Chinese Hostility Toward Women Scale fits the Taiwanese context well by accounting for the balance between individualist and collectivist tendencies. In particular, the wording of the scale eschews the personal“I”in favor of the abstract“men”and“women”instead. The scale reflects the characteristic features of patriarchy in Chinese societies where masculinity is associated with being the head of the family, the one who carries one’s bloodline, and inherits most of their family’s property, as reflected in the“toxic masculinity”and“gender role stereotypes”dimensions. The cultural traditions and the suppression of women as reflected in the“complaints about women’s rights”dimension, and the discriminatory remarks and behaviors against women, whether explicit or implicit, as reflected in the“dissatisfaction and aggression with assertiveness among women”and“low self-esteem and resentment”dimensions.
In particular, most respondents talked about contempt and hostility toward women in the workplace, and gender equality should be an issue of focus among stakeholders and policymakers. The Chinese Hostility Toward Women Scale can also be used to prevent sexual assault.
This study has some limitations. First, Study 1 involved only participants with a graduate-level education. Second, cross-sectional questionnaires were used in all quantitative studies, which limited inference regarding causality or temporal evolution. Future studies can also adopt a longitudinal research design to explore the evolution of hostile attitudes toward women and the changes in the factors affecting such attitudes.