佛家依存主義

Toward a Buddhism-Inclusive Theory

本文旨在建構佛教心理學理論，採取多重哲學典範，從大傳統切入，並依據哈伯瑪斯的知識論，試圖滿足技術、實踐、解放這三種認知旨趣，以期能符合經驗分析、歷史詮釋、批判這三種學科取向。所建構的理論為「佛家依存主義」，主要是根據較保有佛陀本懷的初期佛教，並參考中觀學派來進行論述，同時秉持著人間佛教和實效主義的精神，凡無益於覺悟解脫者，或過於玄虛或瑣碎者，一律不談。理論有三個主要構成部分，首先是「無我論」，本文將有所澄清、詮釋及批判，接著基於此論，建構「無我力境模型」和「佛教掌控苦樂說」。最後，基於這三個子理論或模型，提出可行的實徵研究方案。本研究顧及哲學反思、理論建構、實徵研究這三個面向，為一個完整健全的科學研究方案。

This article presents a culture-inclusive theory of Buddhist psychology that adopts multiple philosophical paradigms and encompasses philosophical reflection, theoretical construction, and empirical research. I employ three major metaphysical presumptions. First, everything is changing and moving towards dynamic equilibrium; second, meaning emerges from interactions or relationships with other things, and depends on context; and third, existence is possible only when differences/contrasts are created or emphasized. All things are relational. A being is nothing more than a set of relationships. The present work follows the three ethical standards for scientific actions set forth by constructive realism: scientific actions ought to (1) help people excel; (2) harmonize human relationships, as well as the relationships between humans and the natural world; and (3) allow the true nature of things, including human beings, to manifest, rather than attempting to exercise control over them. This approach is in line with the basic tenets of pragmatism. I developed a culture-inclusive theory grounded in the fundamental tenets of Buddhism that applies the Buddhist theory of selflessness as the basis of research on the self. It also supports the spirit of Humanistic Buddhism and Pragmatism-that is, it does not discuss anything that is mystical, trivial, or not helpful for moving sentient beings towards awakening and liberation. The theory is comprised of three major parts. The first part focuses on the Theory of Selflessness and includes ideas such as rebirth, karma, compassion, samadhi, and liberation and nirvana, which are not unique to Buddhism but inherited from Hinduism. Dependent arising and emptiness of nature (i.e., selflessness) are the most distinctively unique ideas in Buddhism. I focus on Buddhism’s four Truths: all things are impermanent, all sentient beings experience suffering, all things lack inherent identity (self), and nirvana is perfect tranquility. I integrate and clarify them and critically evaluate the key concepts related to each. Traditionally there are two basic theories of selflessness in Buddhism. The first simply argues against seeing things as mine or belonging to me and urges practitioners to let go of these ideas. It was originally used in juxtaposition to the concept of atman in Brahmanism to argue against the existence of any entity that is constant and unchanging, that exists independently, or that can exercise dominance and control. The second theory of selflessness points out that the discourse on selflessness can be differentiated by ultimate truth and conventional truth. For example, the idea that the self is comprised of five aggregates falls under ultimate truth. Due to the limitations of language, people may be misled into thinking that a self exists beyond the five aggregates. In other words, the self is simply an expedient pseudonym. With this re-interpreted Buddhist theory of selflessness, I constructed two additional components: the selflessness model and the control-induced suffering and joy account. The central idea behind the selflessness model is dependent origination and emptiness. This model is built from previous models on the self: differential pattern (chaxu geju) by Xiaotong Fei, the psychosociogram by Francis L. K. Hsu, and the mandala model of self by K. K. Hwang. The control-induced suffering and joy account highlights the notion that suffering and joy have a direct and close association with the desire to exert control. I offer clarification and critical analysis of different conceptualizations of control in psychology (internal vs. external, primary vs. secondary) and argue that the way control is conceptualized differs between Buddhism and western cultures. The Buddhist notion of control is closer to the idea of self-modification. Compared to Western theories of control, the control-induced suffering and joy account has three major characteristics: (1) it is morally-implicated, (2) it considers the experiences of suffering and joy, and (3) it presupposes the oneness of subject and object. The theory of selflessness, the selfless model, and the control-induced suffering and joy account comprise the three major pillars in the culture-inclusive theory of Buddhist psychology. I propose several empirical research projects based on these pillars for implementation in the future.