十八世紀的恰克圖大黃貿易－－以穆氏家族為例

Kyakhta Rhubarb Trade Business under the 18th Century: The Mu Family Case

自大航海時代以來，歐洲各國分別透過陸地與海洋的貿易路線，與中國往來。例如：清代，歐洲人在廣州、恰克圖等貿易口岸購買茶葉、大黃、棉布、絲網等商品。在傳統西洋醫學裡，歐洲人認為中國甘肅、快西地區出產的大黃是具有強健臟肺、鎮靜清熱等療效的藥材；因此，他們希望透過各種管道取得大黃。雍正五年（1727）年起，清廷與俄羅斯簽訂（恰克圖條約〉在國境上互設市集以後，清廷准許穆氏家族每年輪班從甘肅、俠西地區運大黃至恰克圖販賣；俄羅斯也派遣商人前往恰克圖購買大黃。乾隆三年（1738） ，俄羅斯官方獨攬大黃生意，指定穆氏家族為唯一締結合約的大黃商人；並且，差派代表以毛皮或其他物資，向穆氏家族交易大黃。由於清廷與俄羅斯多次外交衝突，導致恰克圖市集數度關閉。關閉市集期間，清廷限制大黃不得出口俄羅斯；俄羅斯需求大黃熱切，無論是內地商人、新疆回商都願意冒險走私大黃圖利；他們透過蒙古王公、官員、喇嘛間接交易；或從新疆的布魯特、安集延等地出口轉賣。清廷查禁越嚴，大黃價格越好。面對這些商人的非法競爭，穆氏家族的利潤逐漸流失，資金週轉困難，他們多次請求清廷協助，維持生計。自乾隆五十七年（1792） ，清廷與俄羅斯簽訂（恰克圖市約〉後，至鴉片戰爭前夕，恰克圖市集未再中斷，貿易活動穩定成長。這段期間，穆氏家族在清廷監督下，持續賣大黃給俄人。

Since the Age of Discovery, European traders entered China via land or sea trade routes. During the Qing, Europeans purchased tea, rhubarb, cotton cloth, and silk from Guangzhou and Kyakhta. According to western medicine tradition, Europeans believed rhubarb from Gansu, Shanxi had positive efficacy on organs. Therefore, they hope to obtain rhubarb from various sources. After signing the Treaty of Kyakhta in 1727, the Qing court permitted the Mu family to transport rhubarb from Gansu and Shanxi to Kyakhta for selling; the Russians also sent merchants to Kyakhta to buy Rhubarb. In 1738, when Russian officials monopolized the rhubarb business, they appointed the Mu family as the only contracted rhubarb agent. They also dispatched deputies to trade Rhubarb with fur and other substances. Diplomatic conflicts between the Qing and Russians led to several lockouts of the Kyakhta market. When the market was closed, Qing court restricted the export of rhubarb to Russia. As the demand for rhubarb remained high, inland merchants and Xinjiang Uighur merchants smuggled rhubarb for profit. They either indirectly merchandised rhubarb through Mongol royal family, officials and lamas, or transited the goods in Kyrgyz and Andijon. Intensified prohibition further raised the price of rhubarb. Challenged by and these illegal trade, the Mu family faced difficulty in solvency, and requested the Qing court for support. After the resigning of the Treaty of Kyakhta, the Market of Kyakhta had not ceased till the Opium war. During this period of gradual growth, the Mu family sold rhubarb to the Russians under the Qing court's supervision.