日本的阿彌陀淨土圖與敦煌的淨土變

Pure Land Painting in Japan and Dunhuang

阿彌陀淨土因地域與時代的不同，所表現出的形象也不同，這可從比較日本與敦煌莫高窟的作品得到證明。佛教傳入日本後，初期已流傳信仰阿彌陀佛與阿彌陀淨土，即飛鳥、白鳳時期流行把阿彌陀信仰作形象化，奈良時期更是到達一個高峰期。但是到了平安前期，阿彌陀信仰在天台佛教中，區分為歸依阿彌陀和往生阿彌陀的形式與受入唐求法在848年歸國的圓仁帶回山西省五台山的淨土念佛的影響，在平安中葉（985年），惠心僧都源信著述《往生要集》，勸說阿彌陀淨土往生，倡導觀想念佛與稱名念佛。平安中期以後對於希求往生淨土，已經是超越對阿彌陀淨土的觀想，尤其對於觀經中最後的九品往生更加關心。1053年藤原賴通於宇治平等院建造阿彌陀堂周圍的壁面上描繪九品來迎的場面，表現出符合日本風景般的阿彌陀如來淨土。在中國的唐朝是阿彌陀淨土信仰流行達到了前所未有的高峰期。據《歷代名畫記》等文獻記載在當時的首都長安、洛陽的大寺院堂塔內壁面上，繪製有許多淨土變。甘肅省西部敦煌莫高窟，則可見有許多阿彌陀淨土變、觀經變的壁畫，有可觀想阿彌陀如來極樂淨土光景的淨土圖，其上也有九品往生者的表現，但是就是沒有九品來迎的場景。　　日本的淨土信仰追求的是，如何表達自身對於「欣求淨土，厭離穢土」來迎的理想圖像，尤其是來迎圖的表現更為突出。反觀中國作例，無表現阿彌陀如來、阿彌陀極樂淨土與現世的自己或和往生者的關係。表達現世生命與死後世界之間的冷靜距離與關係，可說是日本與敦煌或說與中國淨土變最大不同處。

Depending on area and time-period, differences in the representation of Amitābha's Pure Land are intentionally made conspicuous. I will present divergences between ancient Japanese examples and those seen in the Mogao cave murals of Dunhuang: I will examine differences in both representation of Amitābha's (Ch. Amituo, J. Amida) Pure Land, as well as in Pure Land conceptions. In Japan, from the early stages of the transmission of Buddhism, faith in the Buddha Amida and in Amida's Pure Land spread. From the Asuka and Hakuhō periods, the visual depiction of faith in Amida became popular, reaching a peak in the Nara period. It is conjectured that there were probably few differences between the Asuka to Nara-period representation of Amida's Pure Land and the Pure Land conception and depiction in China and the Korean Peninsula. At the beginning of the Heian period, furthermore, within Tendai Buddhism, Amida faith in the form of devotion to the Buddha and rebirth in Amida's Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss (J. Gokuraku) spread at the foot of the Mt. Hiei. Moreover, as a result of the Tendai monk Ennin's journey to Tang-period China, the Pure Land repetition of the name of the Buddha Amida (Ch. nianfo, J. nenbutsu) as practised on Wutaishan in Shanxi Province was brought to Japan in 848, and had a considerable influence. Then, in the mid-Heian period (985), Tendai monk Enshin/ Genshin compiled the Essentials to Salvation (Ōjōyōshū), promoting rebirth in Amida's Pure Land, and, for that purpose, advocating contemplation and chanting of the nenbutsu. Following the middle of the Heian period, contemplation of Amida's Pure Land was surpassed, as people aspired to actual rebirth in this Pure Land. Above all, interest focused on the nine levels of rebirth described at the end of the Sutra of Contemplation on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life (Ch. Guanwuliangshoujing, J. Kanmuryōjukyō, henceforth Contemplation Sutra). In 1053, Fujiwara no Yorimichi built the so-called Phoenix Hall (Hōōdō) of Byōdōin in Uji, where the nine levels of welcoming (J. raigō) were an especially important matter of interest, as scenes of these nine levels were drawn on the surrounding walls. However, most of these raigō wall paintings of Amida and the saintly host do not display distinctions between the nine levels. Rather, they are an extension to a depiction of Japan's abundant natural scenery, expressing aspiration to rebirth in the Buddha Amida's Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss. In China, on the other hand, the Sui and the Tang were periods when faith in Amituo's Pure Land was promoted. In the later part of the beginning of the Tang, Master Shandao wrote a commentary on the Contemplation Sutra and strengthened faith in the Western Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss. From works such as the Records of Famous Painters through the Ages (Lidai minghua ji), it is possible to know that in the great monasteries of the capitals of the time, Chang'an and Luoyang, Pure Land transformation scenes were drawn on the walls of halls and pagodas. In the Mogao Caves of Dunhuang in Gansu Province, one can see many paintings of transformation scenes of the Pure Land and of the Contemplation Sutra. While numerous examples were produced in Dunhuang, one does not, for the most part, come across examples of copying or reproducing from the limited original images. At the same time, even though the forms of those reborn in the Pure Land are depicted, scenes of the nine levels of welcoming are not found. In many Contemplation Sutra transformation scenes from Dunhuang, we find thirteen of the sixteen Pure Land contemplations of this sutra, but the last three, that is, the nine levels of welcoming, are omitted. It can be said that, in diversity, China does not have full-blown welcoming depictions of rich conception and expression to the degree that Japan does. Japanese Pure Land faith continued to accept 'joyfully seeking the Pure Land; wearied, abandoning defiled existence' as pertaining to oneself, and Japanese Pure Land paintings sought an intimate relationship between oneself and others, above all in raigō depictions. On the other hand, in Chinese examples, the relationship between the Buddha, together with his Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss, and the reborn, as ourselves in the present world, is never shown. A big difference with Dunhuang as well as with Chinese Pure Land transformation scenes, let us say, is that they display a relationship of cool distance between life in this world and the postmortem world. This may have resulted from a faithful reflection of psychological difference in the Pure Land view of self and others.