China’s Shift from CMI to MCF: Military Modernization and the Defense Industry at the Core

The concept of civil–military integration (CMI) was officially introduced in the 1990s in the United States to transform industrial bases in defense amidst shifting geopolitical dynamics. CMI aims to blur the lines between civilian and military sectors, fostering the sharing of resources and technological advancement. This paper looks at the practice of CMI in China and its shift to military–civil fusion (MCF). Though the concept only emerged in the late 20th century, CMI in its other forms such as defense conversion and diversification has been practiced in China since the Mao era. However, the transition from CMI to MCF underscores the evolution of China’s strategic priorities, aligning military and civilian resources for technological advancement and national rejuvenation. Under Xi Jinping’s leadership, China has elevated MCF into a national strategy. MCF is considered essential for achieving China’s strategic goals and has entered a rapid stage of development, reflecting Xi’s commitment to modernizing the PLA and advancing national rejuvenation to realize the“Chinese Dream.”China’s efforts to achieve self-sufficiency in defense production and assert its military prowess on the global stage propelled by the MCF strategy under Xi Jinping have global geopolitical implications.