海國的製作：清初地圖舊知新製與滿文中「海」、「洋」變換

本文以滿文檔案、地圖、字書為核心史料，試圖考證大清自入關前到乾隆朝對於海、洋空間的認識。本文首先指出入關前金國政權翻譯西方製圖在地化成果之《兩儀玄覽圖》中的海域空間，展現了當時對於海洋空間的積極探索面向。入關後亦持續再製舊有地圖，並運用符合帝國建構的政治與文化語境增補其中的知識。其中康熙四十七年杭州織造孫文成重製明代遺留地圖更重新定義海與洋的空間概念，配合他創造獨立於「海」（mederi）以外的新類別「洋」（yang），區別了「海」、「內洋」、「外洋」三者。雖然這樣的概念在康熙最後二十年於閩、浙地方被旗人官員大量運用，但並未為中央所完全採納。乾隆朝強調滿語之重要性，進而增修形成所謂新清語，自乾隆十一、十二年起，原先被視為mederi同義字的namu被獨立出來並取代yang，成為描述海以外的空間，被作為「洋」來進行理解。

This article uses archive, maps, and dictionaries in Manchu-language as the fundamental sources to examine the Qing Empire’s understanding about the space of sea and ocean between the Jin Khanate and Qianlong period. This article indicates that the Jin Khanate translated Liang Yi Xuan Lan Tu, a localized cartographical map, and focused on the marine spaces to actively explore the surrounding marine regions. After 1644, the Qing Empire re-made maps based on the existing maps from the Ming Dynasty and added new knowledge on these maps, according to the political and cultural discourse under the empire-building framework. Among all mapmaking, Sun Wencheng’s mapmaking in 1708 not only remade the map but also re-defined the sea space. He created a new Manchu-language term, yang, to distinguish from the original phrase, mederi. This created a new category to divide sea into three sections: sea, inner ocean, and outer ocean, in Manchu-language. This idea was employed by officials, particularly Bannermen, in Fujian and Zhejiang region in the last two decades of the Kangxi reign period. However, the new phrase was not throughout accepted by the central government. During the Qianlong period, the emperor highlighted the importance of Manchu-language, and eventually contributed to formation of new Manchu-language. Since 1746 and 1747, the Qing court had redefined a synonyms of mederi, nanu, as the regions outside sea to replace the phrase of yang.