從明目到商戰——明代以降眼鏡的物質文化史

From Vision Correction to Trade Wars: A History of Material Culture of Eyeglasses from the Ming Dynasty onwards

本文討論眼鏡這種舶來品與中國社會糅合的過程，及其發展出的獨特物質文化。全文約可分為四個部分，第一部分談眼鏡的輸入、仿製與販售。在隆慶元年（1567）以前，透過朝貢及邊區貿易，其輸入量不大。隆慶元年以後，透過東南沿海貿易，玻璃眼鏡流通日多，通商口岸的居民亦開始仿製。進入清代，市面上產品充斥，價格日跌。銷售方式，除店面之外，隨處兜售也頗常見。第二部分論老花眼鏡、近視眼鏡，及驗光、鏡架的變遷。老花眼鏡的傳入見於記載始於一四二○至三○年代，一六○○年代使用者漸多。清代則有「四十為眼關」之說，從此老花逐漸嚴重，必須使用老花眼鏡。近視眼鏡在市面上流行，主要在康熙三十年（1691）以後。清代業者出售眼鏡，主要以十二種度數的鏡片，提供顧客選擇。而在道咸年間，有腳的新式眼鏡傳入，業者並開始仿製。第三部分分析使用眼鏡的特殊觀念與現象。明末清初，玻璃眼鏡頗受歡迎；但盛清以後，因所謂的「玻璃屬火易傷眼，水晶屬水能潤目」之說，水晶眼鏡為官員、士紳所愛用，其市場佔有率攀升。其次，社會上還有眼鏡不可多戴的觀念。最有名的例子，是清高宗對眼鏡敬而遠之，認為這是物品操控人類的明顯案例，戴眼鏡並不可取。另一方面，戴眼鏡一向被視為有學問的象徵，年輕學子常刻意仿效。而且在清代，戴眼鏡具有某種炫耀性，其中墨色水晶眼鏡獨領風騷。最後的部分，則考察清末眼鏡的新浪潮。光緒年間，西方的驗光表傳入，清朝滅亡前夕又傳進機器驗光。十九世紀末，土產的眼鏡受到西式金邊、銀邊眼鏡及托力克鏡片的強烈衝擊。在上海，本地業者與外來洋商展開市場爭奪戰，眼鏡被貼上貿易戰與民族主義的標籤，高科技的鏡片與專業的驗光技術，還必須以「愛國」相號召。

This paper discusses the process in which eyeglasses, originally an imported good, gradually became an integral part of the Chinese society and the unique culture that ensued. Structed in four parts, the paper begins by giving an overview of the introduction, duplication, and sales of eyeglasses. Prior to the start of the reign of the Longqing Emperor in 1567, small quantities of eyeglasses were imported as tribute offerings or merchandize items of border commerce. After 1567, there was a growing circulation of eyeglasses through maritime trade along the southeastern shores of China. Residents along these regions began duplicating eyeglasses. By the time of the Qing dynasty, an oversupply of eyeglasses caused prices to plunge. Eyeglasses were peddled on the streets as well as sold in shops. The second part looks at reading glasses (eyeglasses for presbyopia), myopia glasses, optometrist services, and eyeglasses frames from a historical perspective. Reading glasses were recorded to have been introduced between 1420 and 1430; their usage began to increase after the 1600s. The Qing-dynasty maxim “age 40 is a critical point for eyesight” denotes a threshold from there onwards one’s worsening presbyopia necessitates use of reading glasses. As to myoptic eyeglasses, they became popular primarily after the thirtieth year (1691) into the reign of the Kangxi Emperor. Customers were provided with such eyeglasses of primarily twelve diopters. During the reigns of Daoguang Emperor and Xianfeng Emperor (1840-50s), a new type of eyeglasses with temples were introduced and then duplicated. The third part analyzes the specific concepts and phenomena involved in the use of eyeglasses. In the years between late Ming and early Qing dynasties, eyeglass lenses made from glass were ubiquitous. At the height of the Qing dynasty, however, eyeglass lenses made from crystal grew popularity among government officials and gentries and their market share jumped thanks to a belief that goes “glass was fiery and would harm the eyes, while crystal was aqueous and could help moisten the eyes.” Also prevalent was the belief that eyeglasses should not be worn for extended periods of time. The most well-known and staunch supporter of this belief is Emperor Qianlong, who avoided using eyeglasses, believing that they are an example of humanity being manipulated by material goods and therefore wearing eyeglasses should be discouraged. Nonetheless, wearing eyeglasses was thought to be a symbol of appearing erudite and there was hearty emulation among younger generation of students. In the Qing dynasty, wearing eyeglasses exutes a showing-off quality, and tinted crystal eyeglasses were considered the most fashionable. The last part investigates a new wave of eyeglasses in the final years of the Qing dynasty. Western optometry tables were introduced during the reign of Emperor Guangxu. Optometric instruments were later introduced prior to the fall of the Qing dynasty. The end of the 19th century saw domestically-manufactured eyeglasses being severely impacted by an onslaught of Western-made golden-, silver-framed eyeglasses, as well as Toric lenses. In Shanghai, a fight over market share was fought between local and Western eyeglasses tradesmen. Eyeglasses were therefore being tagged as trade war vs. nationalism. And high-tech lenses and expertise in optometry would not make for a good peddling without associating themselves with a strong call for patriotism.