從基於親屬的政府到官僚的政府──殷周變革的一個重要面向

From Kin-Based Government to Bureaucratic Government: An Important Aspect of the Shang-Zhou Revolution

本文認為商代的統治機構其基礎為商貴族的族氏結構，所有的政治權力都在王族與由王族所分支的族氏內運作，而商的族氏實質上為一種複雜的親屬制度，故商代的統治機構可謂「基於親屬的政府」。相對地西周則已經朝著「官僚的政府」邁進，此乃李峰之論說。筆者同意此說，並進一步認為西周早期「官僚體系」在陝西的宗周與河南的成周不同。成周位於一個新開發區，因此具有一次性規劃且相對整齊的政府體系。其規劃的藍圖可能是晚商王朝建構的理想政府結構，企圖強化王權並整頓族氏制度。不過，由於族氏強大而難以施行。西周早期的宗周亦係周人舊族所居，故同樣無法實施完整的新制度。其次，成周的政府並不完整，有許多政府的部門，僅在王實際居住的都城宗周才有，比方大祝、大史、公族、小子、師氏、虎賁等。本文進一步認為西周王朝之所以朝著官僚政府發展，主要因素之一是運用大批商遺貴族為中、下層職官，由於他們的升遷與續任無法採取過去世襲的辦法，必須另闢蹊徑以考核官員，逐漸形成以專長與功績為考核標準，此為促成官僚體系的重要原因。從基於親屬的政府向官僚的政府邁進是殷周變革的一個重要面向。

The author believes that clan structure was the foundation of the ruling mechanism in the Shang state. All political power was held by the royal clan, and clans segmented from the royal clan. Clanship of the Shang was a complicated kinship system, thus the Shang ruling mechanism could be defined as a kin-based government. On the contrary, as Li Feng has argued, the Western Zhou moved towards a bureaucratic government. The author agrees with Li’s argument and further argues that the bureaucratic system in the early Western Zhou showed different features in Zongzhou of Shaanxi and Chengzhou of Henan. Chengzhou was located in a newly developed area and had a newly planned and relatively well-organized government system. The blueprint of the government structure in Chengzhou may have been the ideal government structure formulated in the late Shang period to strengthen the power of the Shang king and reform the clan system. At that time, however, it could not be carried out, due to opposition from the overwhelmingly powerful clans. Zongzhou of the early Western Zhou also housed many powerful clans, and therefore the new government structure likewise could not be carried out fully. Secondly, the Chengzhou government, despite being well-structured, was not a complete one, as many governmental institutions, such as Da zhu (the Grand Shaman), Da shi (the Grand Historian), Gong zu (Office of the Clansmen), Xiao zi (Office of the Junior Aristocratics), Shi shi (Office of the Army), Hu ben (the Tiger Guardian of the King), only existed in Zongzhou, where the Zhou king actually resided. This paper argues that a main reason why the Western Zhou moved towards a bureaucratic government was because many former aristocrats from the Shang dynasty were hired to serve as mid- and low-rank government officials. As the assessment of their performance could no longer be determined by their bloodlines, a new set of assessment standards based on merits and their specializations was developed. This brought about the bureaucratic system, and brought the government from a kin-based government to a bureaucratic one.