從專制到東方專制──十八世紀英國殖民進程與東方專制論的源起

From Despotism to Oriental Despotism: British Colonialism and the Origins of Oriental Despotism in the Eighteenth Century

雖然專制一詞在現代中文政治學與社會學，甚至一般日常用語中都極為常見，但相關研究卻出奇貧乏。有關西方專制論述的研究更顯空白。本文意欲彌補此一缺憾。本文的主要論點有二。其一，十八世紀英國輿論普遍從孟德斯鳩的專制論出發，開展出兩條相關卻又獨立的專制論述。一是共和主義式，同時是歐洲自我批判的專制論述；一是對他者或東方政治加以定性的專制論述，亦可稱之為東方主義式的專制論述。為因應英法戰爭與北美獨立運動的政經情勢，英國持續深化亞洲殖民行為與貿易活動。東方主義論述在此現實政治中逐漸壓過共和的專制論述。其二，本文結論道，英國的東方專制論與歐陸，尤其是法國的東方專制有所不同；它是印度殖民的產物。英國殖民主義脈絡下的東方專制論，在兩個理論層面上，成了英國殖民主義的理據。第一，在印度當地的殖民者如東印度公司軍人與英國官員普遍強調回教政權的專制，藉以凸顯英國捍衛印度教居民的自由權。第二，英國東方專制論的內容與亞里斯多德，或早期現代政治理論家如布丹、霍布斯的專制論不同，不只侷限在憲政或王權議題，而擴及對於政教關係、家庭與社會組織等整體層次的文化評論。基於此一東方專制理論，英國殖民者咸認，唯有進行社會改革與西方教化，印度或東方才能從專制體制中解脫。本文最後結論道，十八世紀晚期的東方專制論預示了十九世紀帝國自由主義的出現。

Despite having long been stock-in-trade in modern Chinese political and cultural lexicons, the concept of despotism is extremely understudied in the Chinese speaking world. Providing a path-breaking study of despotism, this article sheds new light on the history of the idea of oriental despotism in eighteenth century Britain. It identifies two related but distinct trends of despotism, both derived from Montesquieu’s L’esprit des lois. One of the trends is identified in this paper as the republican discourse; the other colonialist. This essay analyzes how these two trends entangled and intertwined with each other in eighteenth century British politics. It argues that the colonialist trend of despotism, or oriental despotism, surpassed and, virtually, replaced the interest of the republican discourse of despotism, due to the intensification of colonial activities in India in the last quarter of that century, and, in a lesser degree, to the political radicalization evoked by the American Revolution. Oriental despotism helped colonialists justify British political and military actions in the Indian subcontinent by criticizing Muslim despotism and its actions against the Hindu populations. More importantly, this essay contends that British colonial discourse of despotism painted the Hindu and Muslim societies not only politically, but also religiously, and socially despotic. To the British colonial administration home and abroad, the deeply embedded despotism in India or Asia could not be easily eradicated without social reforms in line with Anglicization. In short, oriental despotism lent the colonialists a rationale for the liberal cum imperial governance in the subcontinent in the nineteenth century.