邁向重器時代──鑄銅技術的輸入與中國青銅技術的形成

Toward An Age of Monumental Bronze: Importation and Formation of Bronze-making Technology in China

關於中國青銅技術的起源，過去學術界的爭論主要針對究竟是西來的或本土起源，這類討論經常是建立在單線演化邏輯上。本文企圖以一個非單線思考的、宏觀的角度綜合地討論相關現象與其間的關聯。先分析青銅技術出現以前的關鍵性背景因素，再從青銅器出現前後的陶器與銅器資料，分析銅器從歐亞草原的引進以及本土化的過程。首先，為了解青銅技術的多面性，本文一方面先回溯到大汶口、龍山文化的製陶技術，以了解「構造性」思維模式的來源，並且指出陶工集團在火候掌握、材料找尋、設計能力、與分工概念等方面的先進性，以至於當冶煉技術進入時，陶工集團很快地就掌控新的鑄銅技術，並且進行大規模的改造。其次從環境變遷角度考察，指出早期領先的山東、蘇浙地區的東海岸文化，可能由於環境變遷導致領先的文化崩解，加上歐亞草原因為後起變遷而「開通」，草原技術的引進，使得洛陽地區有機會搶得進入青銅時代的先機。最後是從幾種玉器的考察，指出在青銅器出現以前，東亞大陸已經形成貴重物品貿易與資訊流通的網絡，這種網絡使得二里頭文化有機會接受到最新的資訊，也是它將製成的貴重物品「外銷」到同時存在的城邦與大型聚落的基礎。最重要的是，作者認為中國青銅技術基本上是透過歐亞草原傳入的，傳入的並非單一的技術或成品，本文有系統地整理龍山時代晚期到仿銅陶器，以及各種殘銅製品、鑄銅遺跡等，指出當時的製陶工匠可能觀察到幾種不同類型的打擊銅器，比方圈足盉、雙大耳罐、爵形、觚形器等。在不同的類型的仿打擊銅器的陶器上，還可以觀察到鉚釘、捲折、重複性幾何紋飾等原本在打擊銅器上可見的現象。整理這些現象，我們可以推論從龍山晚期一直到二里頭時期，大約有兩、三百年的期間，東亞大陸上幾乎所有重要的聚落，都著手進行銅器鑄造的實驗，這些實驗，大多數都失敗了，即使有成功的，也未對整個社會造成太大的影響。東亞大陸的工匠也接觸到歐亞草原常見的開放型單範鑄造和雙合範鑄造技術，並且利用這種二維的技術製作三維的器物，陶寺文化就是這種嘗試的開端，但是銅器的鑄造並未對陶寺文化既有的社會組織或政體形態形成太大的影響。最終成功的則是二里頭文化，二里頭文化的工匠，成功地利用複雜的二維技術，製作三維的容器──爵──逐漸地開發切範技術，完成塊範法的開發，並且在範上施以紋飾。雖然二里頭時代的銅器，仍然具有打擊銅器輕薄的特色，但是技術系統本身，以及企圖在範上施作紋飾，已經踏上了「重器」之路。我們也從鄭州商城窖藏的一群方鼎上，觀察到當時鑄銅工匠為了突破某些限制所做的努力，顯示他們的「構造性」思維邏輯，這種思維邏輯加在器物上大量的施作饕餮紋，終於創造出殷墟與眾不同的「重器時代」。

Previously, a frequent argument among the academics was that whether the bronze-making technology in China originated locally or came from the West. This kind of discussions is often built upon the assumption of a unilinear evolution, while this essay instead seeks to answer the question through a non-linear and comprehensive perspective. First this essay will review the historical backgrounds and key elements related to the development of the bronze industry in China prior to the arrival of bronze-making technology. Then, based on pottery and bronze ware from the time when bronze-making technology emerged in China, this essay explains the introduction of bronze ware and technology from the Eurasian Steppe to East Asia and the localization process in China. In order to fully understand the Chinese bronze-making technology, this essay reviews the pottery-making industry available at the Dawenkou culture and Longshan culture, so to understand the origin of “tectonic thinking” in Chinese bronze-making. The essay also points out that potters in those cultures were already quite advanced in heat control, locating raw materials, designing and division of labor, and therefore, once they were exposed to this new metallurgical knowledge of bronze-making, they were able to quickly familiarize themselves with it and even localize the technology. Secondly, the author looks into the changes that happened to the living environment. Cultures on the Chinese east coast, particularly in areas like Shandong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang, were the earliest prominent cultures; however, environmental changes possibly deteriorated their leadership. Communication between countries and regions across the Steppe, on the other hand, fostered the introduction of new technologies, and gave the Luoyang region a preemptive opportunity to enter the bronze era first. Finally, this essay studies about several types of jade ware, and points out that the continental countries in East Asia formed a network for trade in luxury goods and information exchange prior to the arrival of bronze ware. This network helped the Erlitou culture to get in touch with the latest developments elsewhere, while also helping to export luxury goods from Erlitou to other cities or large settlements. The author believes that bronze-making technology in China came from the Steppe, but what came from the Steppe was not just any one single technology or one particular ready-made product. This essay systematically studies the pottery and bronze ware remains and remains of bronze foundries from the late Longshan period to the Erlitou period. It was noticed that potters at those times were able to imitate traits of hammering bronze ware on the pottery they made, so it was assumed that these potters probably had made observations of or were exposed to several different kinds of hammering bronze ware. In short, during the 200 to 300 years of time from the late Longshan to Erlitou period, many prominent settlements in East Asia were engaged in attempts of bronze making. Most of these attempts failed, and the few successful ones did not cause much influence except the ones at Erlitou. Artisans in East Asia were also exposed to the open and bisectional stone mold technology from the Eurasian Steppe, and influences from the Steppe can be seen at the Taosi culture. However, bronze casting did not really affect the social organization and political system of the Taosi culture. Artisans from the Erlitou culture, on the other hand, successfully used complicated 2D technologies to make 3D containers, jue (爵), and eventually developed the technology of piece-mold casting. Although the bronze ware from the Erlitou period continued to show traits of lightness and thinness, the application and massive use of decoration on bronze ware led the way to monumental bronze in the Erligang and Yinxu (Shang) periods.