學習障礙與一般學生學業，自我概念與學業成就之比較：內外參照架構模式

Comparison of Academic Self-Concept and Academic Achievement of Students With and Without Learning Disabilities: Internal/External Frame of Reference Model

以往認為學習障礙學生的學業表現低於一般學生，也連帶的將使其學業自我概念受到影響，過去曾有研究針對學障學生整體學業自我概念加以探究，但對於特定學業自我概念則較少探討。若能瞭解學障學生特定學業成就是否對其學業自我概念有所影響，與一般學生之間是否有所不同，就能作為介入上的參考。本研究以 106 學年度高雄市國小三到五年級一般學生 791 名和學障學生353 名為研究對象，比較兩個群體在學業成就、學業自我概念上的差異，並且以內外參照架構模式來瞭解兩個群體之學業成就與學業自我概念間的關係。結果發現，一般學生與學障學生在國語和數學成就的差異達大效果量；再者，自我概念方面，控制學科表現後兩個群體間的國語自我概念沒有差異，數學自我概念則是學障學生優於一般學生。至於內外參照架構的結果上，不同年級的一般學生在同一科目的學業成就與自我概念間的相關均達顯著水準，顯示社會比較能力已存在。不同年級的學障學生同一科目的成就與自我概念間均未有顯著相關，不同科目學業成就與另外一科的學業自我概念間也無顯著關連，因此社會比較和向度比較能力均尚未建立。根據研究結果，提出建議以做為未來研究與實務上之參考。

"Purpose: Because of neuropsychological deficits, students with learning disabilities (LDs) often experience difficulties in reading, writing, and numeracy. In the past, students with LDs who experienced difficulties in specific areas of academic functioning could be expected to develop academic self-concepts (ASCs) that are less positive than those of their peers without LDs. Research on the self-concepts of students with LDs has focused on understanding the students’ general ASCs, rather their ASCs in specific subjects. An understanding of whether the academic achievements of students with LDs in specific subjects affect their ASCs and whether their ASCs differ from those of students without LDs could be used as a reference for intervention. The internal/external frame of reference model (I/E model) emphasizes that when individuals form ASCs, they mainly do so through two comparison processes. The first is social (external) comparison, in which individuals compare themselves with their peers. For example, students use peers’ comparative academic achievement in a specific subject to evaluate their own academic performance. If a student believes that their mathematics performance is inferior to others’, they may develop a negative mathematics self-concept. The second comparison is dimensional (internal); students compare their own academic achievements in different subjects to form their ASCs. If an individual’s achievement in mathematics is higher than that in Chinese, their mathematics self-concept may be superior. Through these joint internal and external comparison processes, the individual’s self-concept in each subject is eventually formed.Whether students with LDs also compare their performance in different subjects, leading to low correlations among their subject-specific self-concepts, is worthy of discussion. In addition, if students without LDs can be used as a reference group for understanding the academic performance of students with LDs in Chinese and mathematics, the relationship between those students’ academic performance levels and ASCs can be used as a reference for learning and teaching interventions. This study investigated the differences in the academic achievements and ASCs of students with and without LDs by using the I/E model to understand the relationship between their academic achievement and ASCs. Methods: This study enrolled third- through fifth-grade students with and without LDs taking courses in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, during the first semester of the 2017 academic year. Stratified sampling by level of urbanization (low, low to moderate, moderate, and high) was performed. After obtaining consent from the students’ parents, this study enrolled 791 students without LDs, comprising 271 third-grade students, 266 fourth-grade students, and 254 fifth-grade students from 13 elementary schools. This study recruited 1089 third- through fifth-grade students determined to have LDs, comprising 276 third-grade students, 358 fourth-grade students, and 455 fifth-grade students. Ultimately, this study enrolled 353 students with LDs, comprising 106 third-grade students, 122 fourth-grade students, and 125 fifth-grade students. These students were recruited from special education classes in 55 elementary schools. Moreover, the test instructions provided to the schools indicated that the participating students with LDs should not receive the test in their regular classes and that the teachers of their special education classes should administer the test instead. The research tools adopted in this study included a self-developed ASC scale and academic achievement tests for Chinese and mathematics. After the surveys were conducted, descriptive statistics, t testing, one-way analysis of variance, item analysis, product–moment correlation testing, and exploratory factor analysis, were performed using SPSS 21.0 software. In addition, this study employed WINSTEP 3.66 software to test the reliability and validity of the Chinese and mathematics achievement tests. Results/Findings: The differences in academic achievement in Chinese and mathematics between the students with and without LDs were significant. When achievement was controlled for, the two groups did not differ significantly in their total Chinese self-concept scores. However, after control math achievement, the two groups’ mathematics self-concepts differed significantly: The adjusted means indicated a more positive mathematics self-concept among students in the LD group. However, the effect size for this difference was small. From the perspective of the I/E model, the third- through fifth-grade students without LDs exhibited significant and positive correlations between their achievement and ASC in a particular subject, indicating that social comparison exerted a significant effect, whereas the students had likely not yet performed dimensional comparison. Among the students with LDs, no significant within-domain correlations were observed between students’ subject-specific achievement levels and ASCs, nor was a cross-domain relationship observed, indicating that elementary students with LDs might have difficulties employing social and dimensional comparison to form ASCs. On the basis of these findings and the assumptions of the I/E model, this study determined that the elementary students without LDs were capable of social comparison but not yet capable of dimensional comparison. The students with LDs were ostensibly incapable of social or dimensional comparison. In general, although the academic achievement of students with LDs was lower than that of students without LDs, their mathematics self-concept was slightly more positive than that of students without LDs. Furthermore, according to the I/E model, the students with LDs exhibited lower self-awareness of their abilities than did the students without LDs. Conclusions/Implications: Future studies can build upon this research by accounting for the effect of temporal comparison, comparing students with LDs in different settings (for example, in general classrooms versus in resource classrooms), and comparing students with LDs with low-achieving students without LDs. In practice, teachers can help students with LDs by encouraging them to improve their understanding of themselves, setting appropriate learning goals, establishing an interpersonal support system, and providing special education services to enable students with LDs to increase the accuracy of their self-perceptions."