明代的社會：納貢與例監－－中國近世社會庶民勢力成長的一個側面

Society during the Ming Period: The Acquisition of Government Degrees through Contributions to the State (nagong 納貢and lijian 例監)—One Facet of the Growth of Popular Influence in Early Modern Chinese Society

本文主要討論明代的捐監政策。捐監始見於明朝，做為制度終結於清朝末年，前後跨度達450 年左右。無論從捐納制度，還是科舉取士制度的發展來看，捐監的出現實際上是一個不亞於改朝換代的大事件。因為這一政策的出現等於公開承認財力在選官取士方面的作用，亦即在既有的學力標準之外，又堂而皇之地引入了一個財力的標準。只要付出一定的財力，國家便向該人授予國子監生資格──做官的資格。也正是因為如此，這種充滿銅臭的政策成為人們詬病的對象。但是，這一政策的壽命超過了孕育出它的明朝，在清代進一步發展成為國家的一項制度。這一無可否認的事實為我們揭示了甚麼，這是需要認真思考的。因此，對這一問題的研究將有助於我們認識中國近世社會，尤其是中國近世社會庶民勢力的成長。明代的捐監分為納貢和例監兩個方面。筆者在本稿中首先指出納貢政策的出現是政府採納了生員們提案的結果，然後敘述了明代中葉以後納貢和例監政策的發展經過。筆者從明代府州縣儒學生員的功名意識和明朝的教育制度和科舉制度的架構出發，認為捐監出現的直接原因是在於，生員數目膨脹，導致補廩和出貢的競爭率太高。最後，筆者從捐納出身者的身份意識和社會地位入手，分析了捐納與社會的互動關係，指出了捐納在中國近世社會存在的必然性。

This essay examines the policy of granting government degrees in recognition of contributions (such as grain, horses, or cash) to the state (juanjian 捐監) during the Ming period. This policy first appeared with the Ming dynasty, and as an institution, survived until the end of the Qing period, in all more than 450 years. Whether considered in terms of the development of the institution of purchasing degrees (juanna 捐納) or the recruitment of officials through the civil service examination, policy of granting government degrees in recognition of contributions to the state was no less important in fact than such critical events as dynastic transitions. This policy was tantamount to open recognition of the role of wealth in the selection of officials for government service. In addition to existing standards for scholarship, this policy openly added a standard for wealth. One only had to spend a certain amount of wealth and the state would confer upon that person the qualifications for a National Academy student, that is, the qualifications required for appointment as a government official. For precisely this reason, this policy, which reeked of rank commercialism, became a favorite target for criticism. Nonetheless, the longevity of this policy surpassed that of the Ming dynasty, which had given it birth; during the Qing period, it expanded to become a national institution. What this incontrovertible fact reveals is worth serious thought. Research related to this question will improve our understanding of early modern Chinese society, especially the growth of popular influence. During the Ming period, the policy of granting government degrees in recognition of contributions to the state may be divided into two elements: government students enrolled in prefectural, subprefectural, and county Confucian academies who became National Academy students (nagong 納貢) for their contributions and commoners who became National Academy students through contributions (lijian 例監). In this essay, I first note that the nagong policy was the result of the government's adoption of proposals put forth by licentiates or official students (shengyuan). I then describe the development of the nagong and lijian during the mid- and late Ming period. I begin with consideration of the sense of reputation among licentiates registered in prefectural, subprefectural, and county levels of local Confucian academies and the system of Ming dynastic educational system and the civil service examination. I argue that the direct cause of the development of the policy of granting of government degrees in recognition of contributions to the state was the growth of the number of licentiates, which led to intensified competition for living stipends and the small number of minor posts granted by the Bureau of Personnel to candidates who had failed the civil service examination (chu gong 出貢). Finally, I look at the question of the understanding of social station and sense of social status among those who gained posts through financial contributions, examining the reciprocal influences of society and the system of purchased degrees. For early modern Chinese society, I conclude, the system of purchasing posts was inevitable.