The Jesuit Role as "Experts" in High Qing Cartography and Technology

在明清之際的思想文化上，耶穌會士擔任何等角色，先前的論述一般未能做出適切的評價。許多案例顯示，耶穌會士與當時日新月異的士人之學關連不大。以醫學領域為例，在十九世紀之前，少有儒醫感受到近代歐洲蓋倫式 (Galenic) 醫學的威脅。另一方面，康熙年間 (1661-1722) 朝野之所以對數學大感興趣，與耶穌會士將借根方、三角學與對數傳入中國關係密切。自雍正皇帝（1722-1735在位）施行某種程度的「閉關政策」以來，在十八世紀末葉到十九世紀初之間，中國學者主要致力於全面性的考索傳統數學，並與西方數學比勘對照。 十八世紀初，為了中國境內天主教徒可否祀孔祭祖，清廷與羅馬教皇相持不下。雖經此一頓挫，耶穌會士仍然膺任欽天監的重要「專家」，以及宮廷造辦處監造者之職。明清之際來華的湯若望 (Adam Schall, 1592-1666 ) 與南懷仁 (Ferdinand Verbiest, 1623-1688) 在向士人菁英傳教的過程中，不僅倚重數學知識的紹介，也奉命制作許多器械與武器。十八世紀在中國傳教的耶穌會士，其技術專長包括翻譯西方文獻與地圖，以及引介測量方法，乃至製造大砲、滑輪系統、日晷、望遠鏡、水泵、樂器、時鐘與其它機械器具。這些耶穌會士在歐洲的論敵則指控他們目的不在服事教會，而是為了私利而效力於當地統治者。

"Earlier accounts have generally overvalued of undervalued the role of the Jesuits in Ming-Qing intellectual life. In many cases the Jesuits were less relevant in the ongoing changes occurring in literati learning. In the medical field, for example, before the nineteenth century few Qing physicians（ruyi 儒醫）took early modern European“Galenic”medicine seriously as a threat to native remedies. On the other hand, the Kangxi revival of interest in mathematics was closely tied to the introduction of Jesuit algebra（jiegen fang 借根方）.trigonometry（sanjiao xue 三角學）, and logarithyms（duishu 對數）. In the midst of the relatively“closed door”policies of the Yongzheng emperor and his successors, a large-scale effort to recover and collate the treasures of ancient Chinese mathematics were prioritized in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. Despite setbacks during the early eighteenth century Rites Controversy, the Jesuits in China remained important “experts” (專家) in the Astro-Calendric Bureau (欽天監) and supervisors in the Qing dynasty’s imperial workshops. Earlier Adam Schall (1592-1666) and Ferdinand Verbiest (1623-1688) had not only championed the role of mathematics in Christianizing literati elites, but they also produced instruments and weapons at the behest of both the Ming and Qing dynasties. The technical expertise of the Jesuits in the China mission during the eighteenth century also ranged from translating Western texts and maps, introducing surveying methods to producing cannon, pulley systems, sundials, telescopes, water-pumps, musical instruments, c1ocks,and other mechanical devices. Their European enemies accused the Jesuits of making themselves useful to local rulers for their personal advantage rather than in the name of Christianity.